Four Main Types of Reasoning and Their Tests

1.      Using Examples

§         Is the example relevant?

§         Are there a reasonable number of them?

§         Do they cover critical periods to topic?

§         Are they typical? (rapist pregnancy argument)

§         Are negative examples non-critical?

2.      Using Analogies

§         Are there significant points of similarity?

§         Are the similarities critical to comparison?

§         Are the points of difference non-critical?

§         Is the reasoning cumulative?  Do they complement each other?

§         Literal (for proofs) vs. figurative (for style) analogies

3.      Using Causal Reasoning   (cause <--> effect)

§         Is alleged cause relevant to the effect?

§         Is it the sole of distinguishing causal factor (or one of several)?

§         Is there no unreasonable effect from the cause?

§         Is there no counteracting cause?

§         Is the cause capable of the effect?

§         Is the cause necessary and sufficient for the effect?

§         How does a new cause affect the system?

4.      Reasoning with Relationships (“one means another”)

§         Is the relationship relevant?

§         Is the relationship inherent?

§         Is there a counterfactor that disrupts the relationship?

§         Are the relationships cumulative? complementary?

 Pathos:  The personal needs or desires of the audience and the speaker's connection to them/understanding of them.

    If a Positive audience (one that understands its need and already desires the object), the goal of the speaker is to recharge, to boost the energy/dedication of the audience.

    If a Neutral audience, provide information for them in order to help them make up their minds. 

    If a Disinterested audience, electrify them by capturing their interest so that you may measure their seriousness in being an audience at all, and to check their level of interest (positive, neutral, or disinterested).

    If an Opposed audience, the goal is to first open their minds to possibilities.  Unless they're ready to think/listen, no tactic will work.

Ethos: The personality or character of the speaker. 

    The speaker must demonstrate his/her preparation:  competence & confidence.

    Sincerity is critical to success.  If you don't believe, why should the audience?   

    Good will is also important; demonstrate your serious belief that the audience needs

         your product/idea and will benefit from it.

Logos:  The thinking, logic, and words chosen to persuade.

    Evidence + Reasoning = Proof!

    Fit the approach to the audience type:

• Positive audience:  Narrative, Examples, Companions

• Neutral audience:  Facts, Statistics, Testimony, Examples

• Disinterested audience:  Facts, Statistics

• Opposed audience:  Narrative, Facts, Statistics, Examples, Comparisons;  basically, EVERYTHING!   

Know your audience II

1.     Analyze them during the speech

2.     Play to key individuals / decision-makers

§        What is the attitude of audience to speaker?

§        What is attitude of audience to speaker’s affiliations?

§        What is the point of view of audience?

3.     Understand the occasion for the argument

§        Why are we together?

§        What will precede and follow the argument?

§        What cultures/ceremonies/traditions are attached to event?

§        Who else will speak?  What will they say?

§        Who are the leaders and guests in the audience?  How will their presence affect the audience?

§        How much time do we have?

§        What are the physical conditions of the room?

4.     Know the composition of the audience

§        Homogeneous vs. heterogeneous groupings

§        age, size, gender, education, occupation, ethnicity, cultural issues, interests, groups and organizational memberships

5.     Know the purpose of the event/occasion

§        Does audience know the purpose in advance?

§        Does the audience have knowledge of the subject area?

§        What past experiences has audience had with subject?

§        What effects does the subject have on them?

§        What prejudices and beliefs does audience have on subject?